Zoroastrianism in the Persian Empire
Achaemenid Empire
550 BCE to 330 BCE
Cyrus the Great was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire and was a devout Zoroastrian. Thus, in the Achaemenid Empire, Zoroastrianism was proclaimed the official religion and was closely tied to the state. The religion played a central role in the empire's social, political, and cultural life, and its teachings were closely integrated into the empire's legal and moral codes. For instance, Achaemenid emperors ruled by asha, the Zoroastrian law of truthfulness and righteousness.
Although the religion did spread throughout the empire and through the Silk Road, Achaemenid emperors were known for their policies of religious tolerance. Therefore, Zoroastrianism was not imposed upon the people in any of the empire's conquered territories and people of different faiths could freely practice their own religion.
Parthian Empire
247 BCE to 224 CE
Much like the Achaemenid Empire, Zoroastrianism was one of the main religions practiced in the Parthian Empire and the Parthian emperors were tolerant of different religions as well. As a result, Zoroastrianism coexisted alongside other religions, such as Mithraism, and various forms of polytheism.
One of the most powerful Parthian Emperors was Mithradates II who was a Zoroastrian and extended Parthian rule into the Caucasus. The spread of the Parthian Empire also brought the spread of the religion and fire-altars which still exist in countries like modern-day Armenia.
Sasanian Empire
224 CE to 651 CE
Similar to the Persian Empires before it, in the Sasanian Empire, Zoroastrianism was the dominant religion and was officially the state religion and the religion of the rulers. Specifically, Shapur I, the second Sasanian King, proclaimed Zoroastrianism to be the state religion and reformed the coinage to reflect Zoroastrian symbols (such as fire-altars). During this time period, Zoroastrianism was the religion of most of the upper class as well.
However, despite the prominence of Zoroastrianism, there were other religious groups present in Sasanian society, including the Manichaeans and the Gnostics. The Manichaeans were a gnostic religious group founded by the prophet Mani in the 3rd century AD, during the Sasanian Empire. Mani destined to replace all other religions and, thus, his followers rejected the teachings of Zoroastrianism. That said, the small religious groups remained a minority and did not significantly challenge the dominance of Zoroastrianism during the Sasanian Empire.
The Muslim Conquest of Persia
The Persecution of Zoroastrians
The Muslim conquest of Persia took place between 633 AD to 656 AD. During this period, the Islamization of Iran took place, leading to the beginning of persecution of Zoroastrians. When the Arab armies emerged victorious against the Sasanians, they established Muslim rule over the region which led to the decline of Zoroastrianism.
The Rashidun Caliphate
632 CE to 661 CE
Under the early few Rashidun Caliphates, Zoroastrians were not heavily persecuted and were officially and religiously tolerated by the law. The early caliphs proclaimed Zoroastrians to be dhimmī, or legally protected non-Muslims. In this time period, Zoroastrians were free to worship Ahura Mazda but they were forced to pay a tax known as the Jizya. The jizya was a tax that must be paid by all non-Muslims and was implemented in a fixed rate by the second Rashidun Caliphate, ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb.
The Umayyad Caliphate
661 CE to 750 CE
Zoroastrianism faced significant challenges during the rule of the Umayyad caliphs, especially compared to the Rashidun Caliphate. The Umayyad caliphs were known for their strict adherence to Islam and their efforts to promote the religion throughout their conquered empire. This resulted in Zoroastrians facing persecution and discrimination.
Similar to the Rashidun Caliphate, during the early years of Umayyad rule, many Zoroastrians were forced to convert to Islam or pay a tax for non-Muslims (the jizya) in order to practice their faith. Under Umayyad Caliphates, the penalties for not paying the jizya became more brutal with Zoroastrians often being killed, enslaved, and imprisoned. In the 8th century, Zoroastrians officially became banned from holding any governmental position, and myriad Zoroastrian temples, fire temples, and religious texts were destroyed during this period.
As a result, many Zoroastrians fled to India during the Umayyad Caliphate, where they formed the Parsi community. Others simply converted to Islam in order to avoid persecution and execution by the Arabs.
The Abbasid Caliphate
750 CE to 1258 CE
In the late 8th century CE, the persecution of Zoroastrians was only exacerbated under the Abbasid Caliphate. During this period, the jizya, paid by non-Muslims, came with more restrictions than ever before. Zoroastrians were not allowed to build new temples (with the existing fire temples often being destroyed or converted into mosques), were forbidden to ride horses, and were forced to wear clothing that distinguished themselves from Muslims. In addition, Zoroastrians were demoted in status from dhimmī (legally protected non-Muslims) to kafirs (inferior in status "non-belivers"). Therefore, Zoroastrians no longer had many basic rights, including access to public facilities like bathhouses.
This caliphate saw one of the greatest rates of conversion from Zoroastrianism to Islam to avoid discriminatory treatment and persecution by the Arabs. In 9th century CE, Zoroastrians officially became a minority in Iran and those that continued to practice the faith were concentrated more in rural regions of Iran. The Parsi migration from Persia to India also continued.
The Safavid Dynasty
1501 CE to 1736 CE
Safavid Kings continued to persecute Zoroastrians and forced conversion. The Safavid Dynasty continued to destroy remaining Zoroastrian places of worship and forced Zoroastrians (particularly in urban places) either to convert to Shi'a Islam or be executed. Myriad Zoroastrians died as martyrs under Safavid Rule.
